Analyzing “Jayu” in South Korean presidential rhetoric: a comprehensive study from 1948–2023 with a focus on the Yoon Suk Yeol administration

The political landscape of South Korea, characterized by escalating polarization among political elites and the general population, positions presidential speeches as critical components in shaping governance and ideological narratives (Al-Fadhat and Choi, 2023; Cheong and Haggard, 2023; Han, 2022; Kim and Lee, 2021; Tran et al., 2022). This polarization, reflecting the nation’s entrenched ideological divisions, underscores the importance of analyzing the strategic use of language in reinforcing political authority and delineating governance philosophies. In the dynamic democracy of South Korea (henceforth Korea), presidential speeches serve a dual purpose: they are vital conduits of political communication and key instruments in asserting ideological positions and guiding policy orientation (Eshbaugh-Soha, 2008; Villalobos and Sirin, 2012).

A critical inquiry arises regarding whether the frequent mention of “Jayu (자유)”, symbolizing “freedom” or “liberty”, in President Yoon Suk Yeol’s speeches is coincidental or indicative of a calculated rhetorical strategy. This study investigates the rhetorical practices of Korean presidents, with a focus on President Yoon Suk Yeol, to explore the usage of Jayu within the framework of political discourse. Jayu frequently appears in Yoon’s speeches, encapsulating the ideological subtleties and foundational values of his policy initiatives (Eshbaugh-Soha, 2006; Lewis, 1997; Peake and Eshbaugh-Soha, 2008). Analyzing Yoon’s rhetorical focus on Jayu sheds light on the broader patterns of ideological articulation and political strategy in Korea’s divided sociopolitical milieu.

Extending the research lens beyond the traditional focus on Western democracies, this study aims to enrich the understanding of political discourse within Korea, an important democratic player in Asia. It provides an analysis of how partisan affiliations and ideological leanings shape the lexical choices and rhetorical strategies of Korean leaders, thereby influencing policy and governance trajectories (Eshbaugh-Soha, 2006, 2008). Central to this analysis is President Yoon Suk Yeol’s distinctive use of Jayu, notably during significant occasions like the 77th UN General Assembly and his inaugural address (see Appendix A for full text), which aligns with the conservative undercurrents in Korean society. This investigation dissects the symbolic layers, contextual relevance, and ideological connotations of Jayu in Yoon’s speeches, setting the stage for examining its impact on Korea’s fragmented political climate and governance strategies.

Employing a comprehensive methodological approach, integrating computational techniques such as Natural Language Processing, time-series analysis, and advanced data visualization, the study analyzes over 8,800 speeches from 1948 to October 2023. This time frame, encompassing discourses from President Rhee Syng-man to President Yoon Suk Yeol, provides a rich corpus for exploring the evolution and impact of presidential rhetoric on Korea’s ideological and policy landscape.

This study is divided into three distinct yet complementary analyses. Initially, speech data are analyzed to delineate the association between the president’s political alignment and the prevalence of references to Jayu, using a sophisticated time-series analysis model. This phase aims to reveal inherent associations and provide insights into chronological tendencies and patterns. An in-depth examination of President Yoon Suk Yeol’s specific references to Jayu follows, assessing the variance in his allusions compared to his predecessors across various dimensions. This part seeks to highlight the unique characteristics of President Yoon’s discourse. Finally, the most salient terms from the speeches of each president, including the incumbent, are extracted through Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA), facilitating a comparative analysis of the emphasized rhetoric across different presidential tenures. This approach helps identify and contextualize the recurrent themes and focal points in presidential narratives, shedding light on their policy orientations and rhetorical strategies.

The multi-dimensional analysis provides profound insights into the implications of President Yoon’s rhetorical strategies in shaping governance and policy direction. These insights, discussed in the subsequent section, offer a multifaceted understanding of the impact of rhetorical nuances and thematic focuses within administrative dialogs and policy frameworks. This comprehensive approach contributes to a nuanced examination of the interplay between rhetoric and political paradigms, enhancing understanding of the evolving political discourse and its implications for governance and policy-making.

In sum, this study systematically explores the complex symbolism of Jayu in President Yoon Suk Yeol’s political rhetoric, critically examining its contextual use and deliberate emphasis. The analysis underscores the significant influence of political rhetoric on governance and policy-making processes. By juxtaposing empirical findings with analytical insights, the research underscores the pivotal role of symbolic language in presidential narratives, thereby enriching the academic discourse on political ideologies and governance in non-European and non-Anglophone democracies.

This study provides new evidence to the literature on political polarization and democratic challenges, contributing valuable insights into these critical areas. First, the comprehensive examination of speeches by Korean presidents from 1948 to 2023 underscores the importance of political language in shaping governmental agendas. The study stresses the need to understand the underlying motivations and intentions that guide the use of specific political expressions, particularly in presidential communications. The findings indicate that the strategic use of Jayu acts as a linguistic mechanism to delineate and reinforce the administrative goals and values of President Yoon’s government, a trend observable beyond Korea and across different global contexts.

Secondly, given Korea’s crucial geopolitical stance in the Asia-Pacific domain, the revelations of this study indicate a conspicuous conservative inclination in the prevailing diplomatic posture of the Korean government towards North Korea. This political development necessitates extensive deliberations regarding its repercussions on international politics within the region. The ideological factionalism shaping President Yoon’s foreign policy bears substantial ramifications for diplomatic interactions with the United States, Japan, China, Taiwan, and Russia in the Asia-Pacific sphere.

Lastly, the strategic deployment of politically charged language, reflecting the conservative ethos of Korean society, is identified as a deliberate attempt to align political actions with partisan divisions. This strategy is likely to exacerbate political polarization among the political elite and the wider public. Augmenting the recent scholarly contributions of Al-Fadhat and Choi (2023), Cheong and Haggard (2023), and Han (2022), this study offers further evidence of this phenomenon and emphasizes the importance of fostering meaningful dialog to mitigate the challenges posed by political polarization.

This section offers an analysis of political language, drawing on a wide range of scholarly literature. It begins with a theoretical examination of the symbolism and nuances present in political discourse, with a particular focus on the rhetorical strategies employed by presidents. Wittgenstein (1973) accentuates the indispensability of attaining proficiency in language comprehension within specialized contexts, underlining the multi-dimensional intersections and adherence to societal norms, governing principles, and prevailing paradigms unique to diverse societal constructs. Such a profound analysis is crucial to unravel the multifarious intertwining of language, symbolism, and politics. It constructs a solid structure that enables a detailed examination of political rhetoric, leading to a deeper grasp of the various nuances and subtleties inherent in political language. This improved understanding sheds light on the interplay within this complex field, illustrating how different components interact and coalesce to shape the political environment.

Drawing on the foundational theories of Wittgenstein (1973), and enriched by the analytical insights of Bourdieu (1991) and Foucault (1972), the research underscores the critical importance of contextual linguistic proficiency. It reveals the relationships and alignments between social norms, legal frameworks, and the prevailing cultural patterns of diverse communities (Fairclough, 1989; Lakoff, 2004). This analytical process is vital for unraveling the complex interplay between language, symbolism, and political structures. Therefore, the study offers a framework that enables a deeper and more detailed exploration of political rhetoric, influenced by the influential contributions of Charland (1987) and McGee (1980).

The examination extends into the crucial role of symbolism in political dialogs, especially within the rhetoric of presidents. It becomes an integral element in delineating the structures of political ecosystems. Insights from this exploration draw significantly from the fundamental concepts introduced by Edelman (1964, 1971, 1988), who expands upon Wittgenstein’s groundbreaking ideas, illuminating the web interlinking politics, symbolisms, and various linguistic elements. Edelman (1988) suggests that political language transcends mere representational functionalities, acting as an influential architect of societal realities and enabling politicians to forge and reinforce support for their diverse ideological perspectives.

An exploration of the multifaceted dimensions of symbolism in political dialogs unveils a realm marked by dynamism and complexity. Distinct scholars, including, Campbell and Jamieson (1990), Hart (1987), Stuckey (1989), and Zarefsky (2004), with insights from Burke (1969), Ceaser et al. (1981), and Fisher (1984), probe into the layered facets of presidential rhetoric. They reveal how symbolic language encompasses and conveys the profound complexities of political ideologies, molding national narratives and influencing public perceptions and interpretations of varied political philosophies.

In the current epoch, characterized by profound political polarization, the significance of symbolic rhetoric in shaping public discourse is increasingly evident. This form of rhetoric acts as a potent catalyst, with the capacity to either exacerbate or mitigate the stark ideological divides prevalent in society (Iyengar and Hahn, 2009; Stuckey, 2021. The complex and varied nature of symbolic expressions in political communication demands a thorough and nuanced examination. Such an analysis is crucial for understanding the diverse ways in which these expressions influence and shape public opinion and ideological leanings within various political contexts (Habermas, 1984; Entman, 2003).

This heightened role of symbolic rhetoric in the contemporary political landscape can be attributed to its ability to encapsulate and convey complex ideological positions in a manner that is both accessible and emotionally resonant. Symbolic rhetoric, by its very nature, simplifies and distills political ideologies into potent symbols and narratives that resonate with individuals’ pre-existing beliefs and values. This process not only reinforces existing ideological divides but also has the potential to bridge them, depending on the nature and context of its use.

Furthermore, the study of symbolic rhetoric in political communication extends beyond mere analysis of language. It encompasses an exploration of the socio-cultural and historical contexts that give rise to specific symbolic meanings. This approach recognizes that symbols are not static; their meanings and implications evolve over time and are shaped by the sociopolitical milieu in which they are used. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of symbolic rhetoric in politics involves examining the interplay between language, history, and social dynamics.

Acknowledging the paramountcy of symbolism in political dialogs, this study underscores the pivotal role of public communication within political structures. A body of work (Condit, 1987; DeLuca, 1999; Hart, 2002; Ivie, 1987; Kermani, 2022; Lakoff, 2016; Lim, 2002; Stuckey, 1989, 2010, 2021; Zarefsky, 2004) depicts the strategic utilization of rhetorical components by presidents to align public sentiments with their governing ideologies. Such alignment is integral to elucidating governmental philosophies (Eshbaugh-Soha, 2008; Peake and Eshbaugh-Soha, 2008), creating resonances across national and international domains, traversing numerous layers.

The complex interplay between presidential engagement in public rhetoric and the narratives advanced by the media significantly influences and directs public dialog. Presidents, demonstrating keen insight, utilize various strategies to navigate the complex terrain of media coverage (Maltese, 1994; Bennett, 2008). The delivery of presidential speeches becomes a key conduit in the public sphere (Edwards, 2003; Eshbaugh-Soha, 2008), guiding government priorities, media interactions, and public attention, while aligning closely with collective issues (Cohen, 1995; Hart, 1980), thus profoundly impacting national discourse.

Jayu: symbolic embodiment and ideological demarcation in Korean politics

This study employs a comparative approach to scrutinize the strategic use of the term Jayu (freedom or liberty) in Korea’s political discourse, integrating it within the broader context of symbolic rhetoric in political communication. Korea, as a key democratic entity in Asia, provides a unique analytical ground for understanding how political language is imbued with ideological currents. Within this landscape, Jayu predominantly represents a conservative ideology, a notion deeply entrenched in the societal fabric, contrasting with the Democratic factions’ preference for “Minju” (Democracy), rather than “Liberal Democracy.”

The distinction between Jayu and Minju extends beyond simple linguistic differences, revealing a profound ideological divide that is consistently reflected in the discourse of President Yoon Suk Yeol. Yoon’s staunch support for liberal democracy is apparent, particularly during pivotal political junctures. His commitment was notably articulated upon his resignation as Prosecutor General on March 4, 2021, amid escalating tensions with the Moon Jae-in administration, where he declared his unwavering dedication to safeguarding liberal democracy and the citizenry, regardless of his official capacity. Furthermore, during a press conference for the presidential election on June 29, 2021, Yoon vehemently underscored the significance of Jayu, critiquing the Moon administration, “(Moon Jae-in administration) is trying to take the word, Jayu, out of liberal democracy which is the basis of our constitution.” The evolution of political party names further illustrates this distinction. Conservative factions have traditionally used names that include the term Jayu, starting with the ‘Jayu-Dang’ (Liberal Party) in 1951 and later evolving into the ‘Jayu-Hankuk-Dang’ (Liberty Korea Party). Conversely, Democratic factions have consistently aligned with the term Minju, as exemplified by the contemporary ‘Minju-Dang’ (Democratic Party of Korea).^{Footnote 1}

The ideological landscape encompassing liberal democracy and democracy remains a topic of ongoing debate among scholars and politicians. The notable disparity in the frequency of Jayu usage by President Yoon during his inauguration, as opposed to its absence in Moon Jae-in’s rhetoric, highlights the complexity and layered nature of Jayu in Korean political discourse. The term transcends its original conceptual confines, encapsulating ideologies ranging from “outdated anti-communism” to “far-right totalitarianism,” and its omission leads to implications of alignments with “pro-North Korea” and “anti-establishment” stances (Moon, 2019; Yang, 2021).

Exploring the historical evolution of Jayu and Minju, this research contextualizes their use against the backdrop of historical and geopolitical shifts, notably during the Cold War and post-Cold War periods. The strategic employment of Jayu by conservative leaders during these times was aimed at legitimizing and maintaining governance, portraying it as a defense mechanism against communist infiltration, thus rallying public and international support for Korea’s anti-communist stance. The symbolism of Jayu encompasses anti-communist connotations derived from historical contexts, notably the Korean War and the persistent existence of North Korea (Kim, 2014; Kim, 2017). Within this historical and ideological backdrop, conservative factions prioritize individual freedoms, deriving their convictions from the perceived failures of the collectivist communist regime in North Korea.

Throughout the Cold War and into the evolving geopolitical context of the Indo-Pacific region, Korean authoritarian governments strategically utilized anti-communism both as a domestic political tool and as a means of aligning with Western powers. This strategic narrative, particularly emphasized during the Vietnam War and the Cold War, helped consolidate conservative power by fostering a pro-liberty, anti-communist identity (Steinberg and Shin, 2006; Kang, 2008). The frequent invocation of Jayu in political discourse served dual purposes: it functioned as a mechanism to achieve domestic political objectives and as a strategic element in strengthening Korea’s position as a vital ally in the global anti-communist movement (Cumings, 2005; Han, 1980; Moon and Kim, 2002; Shin, 2017). Despite shifts in the diplomatic relationships between Western countries and communist bloc nations during the Cold War, Korea’s authoritarian rulers consistently leveraged strong anti-communist sentiment (Shin, 2017). This sentiment became a central principle that suppressed ideological debates and criticism within domestic politics, even amidst the discreet diplomacy of the West during the Cold War and following the collapse of communist regimes (Choi, 1993). This persistent use of anti-communism illustrates how it was instrumentalized to maintain political power and limit political discourse in Korea.

The prolonged prevalence of military regimes characterized by growth-oriented ideologies suppressed conventional conflicts inherent within capitalist industrialization processes (Im, 2020b; McAllister, 2016; Porteux and Kim, 2023). During this period, Korean politics evolved distinctly, characterized by a dichotomy between authoritarian conservative governance advocating Jayu and civil society’s democratization movements promoting Minju (Im, 2020b; Lee, 2009; McAllister, 2016). This contrast not only epitomized internal political and ideological struggles but also influenced the broader strategic orientations of conservatives and progressives in domestic politics.

In the early 2000s, the Korean New Rights movement emerged as a significant force within the context of conservative disillusionment following repeated electoral losses. This movement marked a shift towards liberal democratic values, advocating for them as superior to the broader concepts of democracy. The shift was partially driven by changes in educational content and public discourse, which mirrored a deep ideological divide between conservative and progressive interpretations of the concept of Jayu (Lee, 2013; Moon, 2019; Yun, 2012; Kang, 2014). This development was not isolated but intertwined with global neoliberal trends, illustrating the intricate interaction between local and global political dynamics.

Although the New Right encompasses a range of viewpoints and should not be viewed as homogeneous, certain characteristics differentiate it from the Old Right. While the Old Right is often characterized by its anti-communist stance, the New Right is distinguished by its pro-market orientation. Additionally, the New Right has introduced revisionist perspectives, including theories of colonial modernization, the founding of the nation in 1948, and reevaluations of Rhee Syngman’s legacy (Lee, 2013; Moon, 2019; Yun, 2012; Kang, 2014). These historiographical perspectives have ignited societal debates, reminiscent of the controversies surrounding national textbooks during the administrations of Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye.

The New Right’s interpretation of liberalism, influenced by global neoliberal movements, amalgamated market-oriented and pro-business ideologies with traditional anti-communist sentiments, leading to a nuanced understanding of liberal democracy that favored corporate and growth-centric principles. This ideological evolution influenced public party preferences and legislative activities, establishing the conservative party as a custodian of Jayu, reflective of a historical continuum from authoritarian regimes to contemporary conservative politics (Lee and You, 2019; Lee et al., 2018; Hong et al., 2023; Lee, 2023; Kim and Lee, 2023).

In contemporary discourse, the term Jayu transcends a singular historical or symbolic interpretation, reflecting the complex historical and political developments of Korea. The concept of Jayu has evolved, encompassing meanings from past authoritarian periods and those adopted during the post-democratization New Right Movement. This study posits that the concept of Jayu has been prominently featured in the narratives of conservative presidential administrations. President Yoon Suk Yeol, for instance, has openly declared “Ideology is the most important” as a guiding principle for the nation (KBS WORLD, 2023) and has critiqued the previous Moon Jae-in administration for adhering to what he perceives as flawed ideologies. Thus, President Yoon’s recurrent references to Jayu are deliberate, reflecting specific political motives and agendas. These references underscore the policy aims, foundational values, and ideological direction of the current conservative government, functioning as a means to express these elements. In the context of Korea’s “Imperial Presidency” paradigm (Dostal, 2023), the linguistic choices of the president significantly influence both institutional bodies and the public.

Presidential utterances, carefully constructed and refined, reveal the government’s objectives, administrative ethos, and presidential ideologies. Notably, key speeches, such as those at presidential inaugurations and international events, signal the government’s vision and indicate its strategic direction. This study’s thorough investigations shed light on the symbolic essence of Jayu, contributing crucial insights to the broader discourse regarding its complex symbolic meanings in the Korean social framework.

Amidst the evolution of computational methodologies, scholarly pursuits are intensifying in examining political polarization and inherent intentions through analyses of expansive corpora of text—encompassing speeches, remarks, and minutes—articulated by presidents and politicians (e.g., Goet, 2019; Karjus and Cuskley, 2024; Han, 2024). This study is particularly oriented towards investigating the employment of the term Jayu by Korean presidents. In an endeavor to empirically validate the presumed intentionality underlying President Yoon’s recurrent utilization of Jayu, extensive textual contents from speeches of both antecedent and incumbent presidents have been collated.

To aggregate texts spanning from inaugural president Rhee Syngman to the 19th president, Moon Jae-in, web scraping techniques were deployed to sequentially extract and consolidate date, speaker, and complete speech text from the Presidential Archives (pa.go.kr). The extraction for President Yoon’s speeches was sourced from the Korea Policy Briefing (korea.kr), with Table A3 in the Appendix presenting descriptive statistics.

The Jayu variable was conceived from textual narratives and was subsequently transformed into structured data, adopting a daily time frame. Concurrently, the Minju variable, translating to “democracy” in English, was extracted to engender a comparative analytical framework. The comparative examination of these pivotal terms, resonating profoundly within the conservative and progressive realms of Korean politics, allows for an exploration of the divergent emphases placed on these values by each president. In scenarios involving multiple speeches on a single day, an average value was calculated for time-series evaluation. Therefore, the variables Jayu and Minju represent the mentions of the respective terms on specific dates, with the “Party” variable serving as a binary indicator—1 representing conservative party affiliation and 0 representing the Democratic party.

The archival data of presidents’ speeches comprise the president’s name, speech title, and comprehensive text. For this research, transcripts were extracted verbatim, with a concentrated focus on the extraction of words correlating with the president and date. Table A3 in the Appendix affords a comprehensive perspective on the total count of speeches delivered by each president during their tenure, while Figure A1 illustrates the temporal variations (by month) in the volume of presidential speeches. It is observed that most presidents maintain a relatively constant speech frequency throughout their terms, with intermittent fluctuations. A slight decline in speech frequency is noted in the middle of President Park Chung-hee’s term, post which a consistent frequency is maintained. In the instance of President Yoon Suk Yeol, an escalating monthly frequency is discernible over the preceding year, with intermittent fluctuations. Nonetheless, unless he manifests as a highly atypical outlier relative to preceding presidents, a consistent frequency in speeches can be expected to be sustained throughout his terms.

The analytical structure of this investigation is segmented into three distinctive phases. To begin, the analysis aims to examine the relationship between presidential political alignment and the mentions of Jayu by leveraging an Auto-Regressive Moving Average with eXogenous factors (ARMAX) model. Following this, a comprehensive comparative analysis is undertaken to assess the frequency of Jayu references, extracted from the discourses of each presidential tenure, thereby identifying any discernible disparities in usage patterns. Concurrently, an in-depth examination of the juxtaposition and intertwining references of Minju and Jayu is conducted. In the final segment, Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is used to extract the most salient terms from the combined speeches of all presidents. This identified the thematic focus and lexical emphasis in the political rhetoric of their respective eras. In each analysis section, the specific strategy employed will be discussed in greater detail.

Analysis 1

The analysis begins with a broad examination of the trends in mentions of Jayu and Minju from 1948 to 2023. The aim is to construct an overview of the changes and variations in the frequency of these terms over different periods, each reflecting distinct social and political contexts in Korea. Figure 1 shows that until the 1980s, the term Jayu was more prevalent in political discourse than Minju.^{Footnote 2} This tendency is highlighted in Fig. 1, indicating a strong preference for Jayu during this era. However, after the democratization movement in 1987, there was a noticeable increase in the mentions of Minju. Furthermore, with the onset of President Yoon Suk Yeol’s term in 2022, there has been a significant rise in the mentions of Jayu, suggesting a change in the political and social landscape that reflects the evolving discursive and ideological priorities of the nation’s leaders.

Mentions of Jayu and Minju by date and president.

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While the macro-level trends depicted in Fig. 1 provide valuable insights, a deeper analysis is required to understand the relationships between political affiliations and the usage of Jayu. Therefore, the subsequent phase of the analysis will involve a time-series statistical analysis to dissect these dynamics further and to shed light on how the political leanings of presidents influence the frequency of Jayu mentions.

In the following analysis, a time-series statistical analysis is performed to investigate the relationship between the Party and the variables Jayu and Minju, the latter included for comparative analysis. The investigation spans distinct chronological segments: the Full period (1948–2023), Post-Democratization (1988–2023), Post-New-Right Movement (2004–2023), and Post-Impeachment of President Park Geun-hye (2017–2023).

The demarcation of analytical periods is informed by the author’s nuanced interpretation of pivotal junctures in Korean politics, which are explicated in the preceding sections. This subjective delineation, grounded in a comprehensive exploration of political events in Korea, is subsequently substantiated through quantitative means, utilizing the Chow test, the results of which are illustrated in Figure A2. A p-value below 0.05 in this test signifies a temporal structural shift in the mentions of Jayu. While the results manifest coherence with the categorization inferred from the preceding qualitative assessment, they do not exhibit complete concordance. Distinct statistical significance is observed in 1987, 1989, 2008, 2010, and 2022, aligning with the commencements of the administrative terms of Presidents Roh Tae-woo, Lee Myung-bak, and Yoon Suk Yeol, respectively.

This enables a logical differentiation between the post-democratization epoch in 1988, the rise of the New-Right movement shortly before Lee Myung-bak’s term, and the post-impeachment phase leading into Yoon Suk Yeol’s presidency. Given that the intervals immediately before these terms of President Lee and Yoon were dominated by Democratic Party presidents, the selection of the New-Right Movement and post-impeachment intervals as critical periods can be justified. Additionally, the outcomes of the Cumulative Sum (CUSUM) test, depicted in Fig. A3, indicate structural modifications coinciding with the inaugurations of Presidents Park Chung-hee in 1964, Roh Tae-woo in 1988, Lee Myung-bak in 2008, and Yoon Suk Yeol in 2022.

Considering the contextual exploration of Korean political shifts, and integrating findings from the Chow and CUSUM tests, this study systematically organizes the analysis into categorized periods, namely the full period, post-democratization, post-new-right movement, and post-impeachment, to facilitate a comprehensive understanding of the complex interdependencies and transformations across varied political timelines.

Now, we turn to the analytical strategy for time-series analysis. The nature of time-series data is characterized by its structured temporality, where observations at a given time point are influenced by preceding observations. This inherent temporal dependency poses challenges for traditional modeling techniques. While the ordinary least squares (OLS) regression is a widely recognized tool, particularly for cross-sectional data, its application to time-series data can be problematic. Specifically, when considering the potential temporal dependencies of mentions of Jayu, as observed in Fig. 1, it is important to note that OLS does not inherently account for such dependencies. This oversight can result in spurious regression. In these instances, perceived relationships between variables might be due to shared temporal trends rather than actual associations (Granger and Newbold, 1974).

Given these challenges, and considering the inclusion of a Party variable in the dataset, this investigation has opted for the Auto-Regressive Moving Average with eXogenous factors (ARMAX) model. The ARMAX model is adept at capturing the intrinsic temporal structure of time-series data. It integrates autoregressive (AR) components to model the relationship of a variable with its past values and moving average (MA) components to account for the relationship of the error term with its past values. The ‘X’ in ARMAX, denoting exogenous, allows for the incorporation of external variables, such as the Party variable in this study. This comprehensive modeling approach is particularly suited to address the complexities and nuances of time-series data, ensuring that derived relationships are genuine and not merely artifacts of shared temporal trends.

A critical consideration in time-series analysis is the stationarity of the data. Stationary data exhibits consistent statistical properties over time, whereas non-stationary data can produce unreliable and potentially invalid results due to its inherent unpredictability (Granger and Newbold, 1974). The ARMAX model is designed to efficiently analyze stationary time-series data, addressing influences from previous observations and intrinsic trends (Shumway and Stoffer, 2017; Box et al., 2015). To ascertain the stationarity of the dataset, this study employs the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test for unit root, in line with best practices (Dickey and Fuller, 1979; Shumway and Stoffer, 2017). The results, detailed in Table 1, confirm the stationarity of the series, as the null hypothesis of a unit root is rejected. This choice of methodology ensures the reliability and validity of the results, laying a solid foundation for subsequent interpretative analysis.

In Eq. (1), the ARMAX model consists of a constant, the sum of AR lags and their multipliers, the sum of MA lags and their multipliers, and white noise (Shumway and Stoffer, 2017). Finally, the ARMAX model takes into consideration exogenous variables, such as the Party variable in this analysis. The analysis equations for this study are presented as follows. In Eq. (1), Y is the number of Jayu (or Minju), X is Party, and the moving average parameter (\(\theta\)) is defined.

The analysis of Table 2 shows a significant positive relationship between political party affiliation and the usage of Jayu, which supports the study’s hypothesis. From the Full period through to the Post-Democratization period, there is a consistent effect of political party on Jayu usage. This effect is notably stronger after the New Right movement, underscoring a more pronounced relationship between political party affiliation and the use of Jayu. Conversely, the relationship between political parties and Minju is negative during the Full period but does not reach statistical significance in the Post-Democratization, Post-New Right Movement, and Post-Impeachment periods. Significantly, the impact of the political party on Jayu usage remains statistically substantial across all periods, with a marked intensification following the New Right movement. This trend continues through the periods following the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye, under the administrations of Presidents Moon Jae-in and Yoon Suk Yeol.

Analysis 2

Analysis 2 scrutinizes the speeches of each president. Figure 2 delineates the average mentions of Jayu by each president, while Fig. 3 isolates and presents the average mentions of Jayu solely by conservative presidents, spanning from the first president to President Yoon. In Fig. 2, President Yoon’s average mention of Jayu is unprecedentedly high compared to his predecessors, with an average value of approximately at 3.1. This is over double the average of conservative presidents, calculated at 1.3, and about six times higher than the average of progressive presidents, noted at 0.5. Conversely, President Moon Jae-in registers the minimal mentions of Jayu among all presidents. Subsequent to democratization, mentions of Jayu experienced a gradual decline starting from the tenure of President Roh Tae-woo and witnessed a substantial resurgence under the recent presidency of Yoon Suk Yeol. In Fig. 3, among conservative presidents, President Roh Tae-woo ranks next to President Yoon in terms of mentions of Jayu, succeeded by Rhee Syngman and Park Chung-hee.

Jayu on average.

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Jayu on average (only conservative).

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In Fig. 4, examining the difference between Jayu and Minju in (a) informs us that President Yoon has the highest value. For President Roh Tae-woo, mentioning Jayu has the second highest value; however, Minju was mentioned much more than Jayu was. Excluding President Yun Po-sun—due to a limited number of speeches—the difference is the second highest for President Rhee Syngman following President Yoon Suk Yeol. Looking at Fig. 5, President Yoon has the highest ratio of Jayu to Minju, followed by President Rhee Syngman and Park Chung-hee. The results reflect that President Yoon’s average mention of Jayu, and the difference and the ratio with Minju are overwhelmingly high. This is followed by President Rhee Syngman and Park Chung-hee, former conservative presidents during the Cold War era. Generally, the 20th President, Yoon, and the 19th president, Moon Jae-in, are located on both ends. Given that President Yoon has held office for approximately one year and a half, we can conduct a comparative analysis of his predecessors based solely on their first-year speeches (see Fig. A4-A5 in Appendix A). The findings based on examining only the speeches delivered within the initial year of their presidency align with the results presented earlier.

Difference between Jayu and Minju.

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Ratio between Jayu and Minju.

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Figure 6 delineates the frequency of the mentions of Jayu and Minju across various presidential inaugurations, events that are paramount for proclaiming governmental vision, outlining policy direction, and fostering a spirit of national unity. These ceremonies signify the commencement of a presidential term and serve as a platform where the president articulates their envisioned trajectory for the nation, reflecting underlying ideologies and intended governance approaches (Biria and Mohammadi, 2012; Ericson, 1997; Kapitány et al., 2020; Lodhi et al., 2018). Remarkably, President Yoon’s inauguration is notably distinctive, marked by thirty-five mentions of Jayu. This substantial emphasis presents a stark contrast to his predecessors, whose inaugural addresses were characterized by more restrained invocations of Jayu.

Jayu and Minju in the inaugural address by the president.

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In 1988, President Roh Tae-woo marked a historical transition as he was the inaugural president to be democratically elected, asserting emphasis on both Jayu and Minju, with particular accentuation on democracy. During a 1987 address to the National Assembly amidst his presidential candidacy, he proclaimed, “An epoch of eminent commonality shall be inaugurated,” articulating the indispensability of a pluralistic civil society unmanageable by authoritarian structures. Despite the potentiality of political propaganda, Roh Tae-woo’s assertions symbolize a distinctive deviation from the preceding authoritarian regimes (Cotton, 1989). His conceptualization of the “Northern Policy” strived to ameliorate affiliations with communist bloc nations, marking his administration as a pioneering entity in establishing diplomatic relations with nations such as the Soviet Union and China in the early 1990s. Concurrently, endeavors to enhance relations with North Korea were manifested through the “Special Presidential Declaration for National Independence, and (Re)Unification and Prosperity,” also recognized as the July 7 Declaration in 1988 (Cha, 2020). Consequently, the political maneuvers and policy implementations of President Roh Tae-woo can be perceived as resolutions to relinquish coercive and authoritarian remnants, and to fortify international dialogs and exchanges, particularly with communist bloc nations including North Korea. The aspirations and administrative principles of the Roh Tae-woo administration were delineated in his discourses, exemplifying emphases on both Jayu and Minju. Alternatively, these emphases might signify attempts to estrange himself from his military antecedents, given his integral role within the military coup and subsequent regime.

In^{Footnote 3} Analysis 3, Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) is employed to identify the most salient terms within the extensive speech transcripts of various presidents. The primary objective is to juxtapose these findings with those from President Yoon Suk Yeol’s speeches to ascertain discernible variations. LDA is a probabilistic topic modeling technique introduced by Blei et al. (2003). It aims to discover latent topics within a collection of documents. Under the LDA model, each document is viewed as a mixture of topics, and each topic is conceived as a distribution over words in the corpus. The algorithm operates under the assumption that words in a document arise from one of the document’s underlying topics. Through iterative assignments and adjustments, the LDA model discerns the optimal distribution of topics for each document and the associated word distributions for each topic (Griffiths and Steyvers, 2004). By analyzing the highest probability words within each topic, researchers can infer the central theme or subject of the topic.

For the analysis, the initial phase entails importing a predetermined list of Stop Words—common words that are typically filtered out to enhance topic clarity. Utilizing the Okt tokenizer, a pivotal component in Korean Natural Language Processing (NLP), the data undergoes morphological analysis.^{Footnote 4} This operation leads to the omission of tokens categorized as “Josa” (equivalent to English prepositions) and “Conjunction”. Subsequently, a regex pattern is established to further refine the extracted tokens, ensuring the inclusion of only Korean characters, English alphabets, and numerals. Upon successful filtration, the data is structured in a bag-of-words model, compatible with LDA processing with the gensim library in Python. With the objective of discerning six distinct themes, the LDA model is operationalized. Each emergent theme or topic comprises a collection of words, each accompanied by a specific weight. Words with a higher weighting value are indicative of their centrality to the respective topic. For a holistic understanding of each topic’s essence, words with the highest weights are examined, enabling an intuitive interpretation of the theme’s primary focus.

The results of the LDA analysis on the speech texts of each president are presented in Figs. 7 through 18. To preserve the authenticity of the text, Korean words are retained in their original form, with corresponding English explanations provided for clarity. President Yun Po-sun is omitted from the analysis due to the limited dataset, comprising only three speeches in total.

LDA Topic results of Rhee Syngman.

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LDA Topic results of Park Chung-hee.

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LDA Topic results of Choi Kyu-hah.

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LDA Topic results of Chun Doo-hwan.

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LDA Topic results of Roh Tae-woo.

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LDA Topic results of Kim Young-sam.

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LDA Topic results of Kim Dae-jung.

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LDA Topic results of Roh Moo-hyun.

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LDA Topic results of Lee Myung-bak.

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LDA Topic results of Park Geun-hye.

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LDA Top results of Moon Jae-in.

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LDA Topic results of Yoon Suk Yeol.

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The analysis examines the thematic progression in the speeches of Korean presidents, as illustrated in Figs. 7 to 18. It emphasizes the dynamic nature of presidential rhetoric, observing shifts in emphasis over time. Instead of concentrating solely on the language used by individual presidents, the study assesses the discourse both longitudinally and comparatively. This approach facilitates the identification of significant distinctions between President Yoon Suk Yeol and his predecessors, which are pivotal to the analysis. In Fig. 7, the analysis of President Rhee Syngman’s rhetoric shows “Government” (정부: Jeong-bu) as the predominant term, reflecting the emphasis on state-building and governance during the early years of Korea’s independence and post-war recovery. The following significant terms, “Nation/State” (나라: Nara), “Global” (세계: Segye), “Our country” (우리나라: Uri-nara), and “U.S.” (미국: Mi-guk), underscore the themes of national identity and international relations during this period.

Figure 8 reveals that President Park Chung-hee’s discourse places “The public” (국민: Guk-min) at the forefront, followed by “Development” (발전: Bal-jeon), “Nationality/Race” (민족: Min-jok), “Government” (정부: Jeong-bu), “Effort” (노력: No-ryuck), and “Present day/Today” (오늘: Oh-neul). This shift in focus to “The public” and “Development” marks a transition towards the developmental state model, emphasizing economic growth and national unity. In President Choi Kyu-hah’s era, as depicted in Fig. 9, “The public” remains the central theme, with subsequent focus on “Nation/State” (국가: Guk-ga, 나라: Nara), “Stability” (안정: Ahn-jeong), “Development”, and “Government”. This continuity suggests a persistent emphasis on national unity and stability, particularly following the tumultuous end of President Park’s regime.

Figure 10 illustrates that under President Chun Doo-hwan, the emphasis on “The public”, “Efforts”, “Nation/State”, and “Development” continues, indicating a sustained focus on national unity and economic development amidst the political transitions of the time. The discourse under President Roh Tae-woo, analyzed in Fig. 11, maintains “The public” as a key term, but introduces “North Korea” (북한: Buk-han), “Democracy” (민주: Minju), and “Relationship” (관계: Gwan-gye) as prominent themes. This highlights a shift towards democratic transition and improving inter-Korean relations. President Kim Young-sam’s tenure, shown in Fig. 12, continues to emphasize “The public”, with a notable pivot towards “Global” (세계: Segye) and “Reformation” (개혁: Gae-hyuck), reflecting a focus on globalization and comprehensive economic reforms.

In the speeches of Presidents Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun, presented in Figs. 13 and 14, a consistent emphasis on “The public”, “Economy”, “Reformation”, and “Cooperation” (협력: Hyup-ryuck) suggests a continuation of the themes of economic reform and democratic consolidation, with an added focus on cooperative diplomacy, particularly with North Korea.

Figures 15, 16, and 17 present a discourse analysis of Presidents Lee Myung-bak, Park Geun-hye, and Moon Jae-in, respectively. These figures reveal a consistent thematic focus on “The public” (국민: Guk-min), signifying a rhetorical continuity among Korean presidents, which emphasizes the populace’s central role in their leadership narratives. However, despite this commonality, each president demonstrates unique thematic emphases reflecting their distinct agendas. For instance, President Lee Myung-bak’s discourse frequently features terms like “Corporation” (기업: Giup) and “Global” (세계: Segye), indicating a strategic focus on corporate growth and global entrepreneurship. Conversely, President Park Geun-hye’s speeches are characterized by the recurring use of “Novel/New” (새로운: Seroun) and “Creative Economy” (창조경제: Chang-jo gyung-je), mirroring her ambition to drive innovation and position Korea at the forefront of the global creative economy. Meanwhile, President Moon Jae-in’s rhetoric is distinguished by the prominent mention of “Peace” (평화: Pyung-wha), aligning with his diplomatic efforts to promote peace, particularly in the Korean Peninsula.

In the analysis of President Yoon Suk Yeol’s discourse, as illustrated in Fig. 18, a significant shift in linguistic patterns compared to his predecessors is evident. While previous presidents often highlighted “the public” (국민: Guk-min) as a central term, President Yoon’s rhetoric is characterized by the predominant use of Jayu, consistently featured across various topics. Despite the continued importance of terms like “Cooperation” (협력: Hyup-ryuck) and “Economy” (경제: Gyung-je), akin to past administrations, the distinct focus on Jayu differentiates President Yoon’s narrative. Except for President Rhee Syngman, who emphasized government and nationhood during the Republic’s early years, the narrative has traditionally been centered around the public. In stark contrast, President Yoon’s emphasis on the ideologically potent term Jayu signifies a shift in narrative and policy orientation.

In the constitutional, political, and social lexicon of Korea, the term “국민” (Guk-min), commonly translated as “the public,” carries multifaceted and profound implications. Article 1 of the Republic of Korea’s Constitution establishes the country as a democratic republic, affirming that sovereignty rests with the people and that all state authority is derived from them. Here, “국민” is a comprehensive term that integrates various concepts like “citizens,” “the public,” “nation,” and “people,” signifying the foundational role of citizens in the nation’s power and sovereignty. This term is central to the democratic ethos of Korea, representing the collective body of individuals that form the nation’s core.

Throughout the history of Korea, presidential rhetoric has mirrored the individual characteristics, objectives, and the specific political context of each administration. Despite this variability, the reference to “국민” has been a constant element, emphasizing its status as a constitutional bedrock and reflecting a commitment to the people and national cohesion. In contrast, President Yoon Suk Yeol’s rhetoric appears to diverge from this tradition, with a greater emphasis on Jayu, signaling a significant ideological and narrative shift in the nation’s presidential discourse.

In the context of carefully crafted presidential speeches, the term “국민” transcends mere lexical inclusion within political discourse. Based on the theoretical examination of the symbolism and nuances inherent in political discourse, this analysis underscores the critical role these elements play in the presidential lexicon, highlighting how they can be strategically employed to enhance the effectiveness of such communications. The frequent invocation of “국민” by past presidents highlights its role in articulating the interests and aspirations of the populace, thereby affirming its significance in the representation of collective national identity and priorities. The discernible decrease in the usage of “국민” in President Yoon Suk Yeol’s rhetoric could indicate a deliberate shift from traditional presidential communication norms, or it may reflect an evaluation of the term as less critical. This change appears to prioritize personal or administrative agendas, potentially at the expense of broader national welfare. This apparent shift suggests a reorientation in rhetorical strategy, potentially moving away from a focus on public service to emphasize specific political or ideological objectives. Such a change not only reflects a variation in communicative emphasis but also may indicate a broader evolution in the narrative and ideological underpinnings of the presidency.

In conclusion, the synthesis of theoretical underpinnings, historical context of Korea, and findings from Analyses 1, 2, and 3 furnishes a nuanced comprehension of Jayu’s role in President Yoon Suk Yeol’s political rhetoric. The ideological orientation of a president, particularly those with conservative leanings, plays a pivotal role in the frequency of Jayu references within their speech patterns. This study reveals a clear distinction in the usage of Jayu between conservative and progressive administrations, as evidenced by the time-series analysis in Analysis 1. Notably, with the exception of President Roh Tae-woo, the trend of Jayu mentions from 1948 to 2023 exhibits a U-shaped pattern, indicating a significant revival of Jayu in President Yoon’s era, detailed in Analysis 2. This resurgence is particularly prominent in inaugural addresses, which are key in delineating government agendas and policy directions, where President Yoon’s focus on Jayu is unprecedented.

Analysis 3 explores the thematic orientations across different presidencies, highlighting the dynamic nature of political priorities and rhetoric over time. The historical narrative shows a shift in thematic focus, from “Government” and “Nation/State” during President Rhee Syngman’s post-independence state-building phase to a consistent emphasis on “The public” by subsequent leaders, until a marked deviation with President Yoon Suk Yeol’s prioritization of Jayu. This shift signifies not only a change in political discourse but also underscores Jayu as a symbol of ideological and factional significance in the Korean context, distinguishing President Yoon’s rhetoric from his predecessors.

Under President Yoon Suk Yeol, the usage pattern of Jayu distinctly diverges from that of previous administrations, reflecting a shift in ideological and governance strategies. This change underscores a deliberate and strategic employment of the term to influence policy and national discourse. Consequently, this variation not only accentuates President Yoon’s ideological and political philosophies but also signifies a unique direction in policy and national vision under his administration.

The initial analysis highlighted in the preceding section clearly shows the significant impact of conservative partisanship on the usage of Jayu. Taking into account the historical backdrop, the era before democratization would require frequent invocations of Jayu, driven by the North Korean threat during the Cold War. Shifting the focus to the period after the 1987 democratization unveils a more noticeable change in President Yoon Suk Yeol’s approach to rhetoric. Specifically, in the post-democratization and post-New Right movement era, Yoon’s references to Jayu are markedly more frequent than those of his conservative predecessors, Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye. Furthermore, the third analysis uniquely highlights President Yoon’s rhetoric through his use of Jayu. This emphasis contrasts markedly with the more general references to “국민”, the public, made by previous presidents which resonates with the ethos of the Korean constitution. These analytical findings question the assumption that President Yoon’s frequent emphasis on Jayu is merely a habitual aspect of his speech. Following Schäffner’s (1996) perspective, the analysis of political discourse should critically assess the language choices of policymakers to understand their political implications. Building on this foundation, this section will delve into the political and policy dynamics of the Yoon Suk Yeol administration, providing insights into the varied strategies and decisions that define his tenure.

President Yoon Suk Yeol has been forthright in his views, asserting that “Ideology is the most important” guiding principle for the nation (KBS WORLD, 2023). He also expressed criticism towards the Moon Jae-in administration, accusing it of adhering to misleading ideologies. This underscores President Yoon’s belief in the centrality of ideology to governance and suggests that without a common national vision, collaboration with opposition parties is problematic. The following will further explore President Yoon’s perspective on what constitutes appropriate ideologically-driven politics and policy.

To commence, a scrutiny is applied to the administrative objectives and guiding principles of the administration, particularly focusing on aspects related to labor and market dynamics. A comprehensive exploration of labor-centric remarks and policy formulations, spanning from the period of President Yoon’s candidacy to his incumbency, unveils a resolute pro-business orientation. This orientation is characterized by advocacy for enhanced flexibility within the labor market and the adaptation of overtime regulations (Tan, 2022; Yim, 2023a). In alignment with this stance, the administration has proposed a substantial augmentation in the maximum permissible working hours per week, elevating it from 52 to 69 h, a maneuver conceived to bestow augmented benefits upon corporate entities.

The administration’s perspective on labor unions is articulated with unambiguous clarity, with specific instances serving to illuminate the underlying stance. For instance, on May 28, 2022, despite the persistence of negotiations, a harmonious consensus remained elusive amongst the ruling People Power Party, the pertinent government ministry, and the Cargo Truckers Solidarity Union. In response to this impasse, President Yoon adopted a stringent posture, analogizing their strike to the “nuclear threat” emanating from North Korea, thereby portraying it as a formidable threat to the national economy and security (Yonhap News, 2022).

From its conceptual inception, the administration of Yoon Suk Yeol has steadfastly advocated for policies focused on tax reductions and deregulatory initiatives, demonstrating a clear preference for corporations and high-income individuals (Choi, 2022; Kim, 2022). Additionally, President Yoon has voiced significant concerns about the expansion of medical insurance reform, informally known as Mooncare, introduced by the Moon Jae-in government, labeling it as a “populist policy that squanders taxpayer money” (Kang, 2022). As reported in June 2023, President Yoon has championed the examination of social welfare benefits, grounded in market principles, to avert the squandering of resources in Korea (Jun, 2023). He articulated these viewpoints during a social security strategy meeting, underscoring the necessity for marketization within social security services.

The graphical representations in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 illustrate a U-shaped trajectory, with the exception of those pertaining to President Roh Tae-woo. This prompts the reflective question: Does this trajectory indicate a regressive return to the Cold War era? The diplomatic stance of the Yoon Suk Yeol administration towards North Korea markedly deviates from its predecessor, the Moon Jae-in administration, which continued the Sunshine Policy initiated by the Kim Dae-jung administration, aiming to foster friendly relations with North Korea through dialog and negotiations (Choe, 2023). President Yoon has advocated for a “Kill Chain” preemptive strike strategy to counter potential nuclear threats from North Korea (Smith, 2022). His increasingly assertive statements on North Korea, including discussions on the deployment of nuclear forces against North Korea in partnership with the United States (Choi, 2023) or developing independent capabilities (Choe, 2023), indicate a shift towards a more confrontational diplomatic approach, contrasting with the dialog-focused and denuclearization-oriented policies of the previous Democratic Party administrations.

The administration’s policy approaches in labor, welfare, and diplomatic relations with North Korea consistently embody anti-communist ideologies and small government principles, symbolized by the concept of Jayu. This ideological coherence is prominently reflected in President Yoon’s rhetoric during his state visit to the United States from April 24 to 30, 2023. Throughout this visit, President Yoon articulated the themes of “free market prosperity”, an “alliance to defend freedom”, and “freedom and prosperity,” employing the term Jayu 157 times in speeches delivered to diverse audiences at the White House, Congress, and universities. This emphasis underscores the administration’s commitment to these enduring principles.

An analysis of President Yoon’s speeches reveals a strategic use of the term Jayu, particularly highlighting three themes: public democratic rights, market dynamics, and security/diplomacy. According to a news article by Bang (2023), of the 84 speeches analyzed from President Yoon’s inauguration through his address at Harvard University on April 29, 2023, 30 references were related to market issues, 39 to security and diplomatic concerns—often regarding the North Korean threat or the South Korea-U.S. alliance—and only 5 addressed fundamental public rights. This distribution suggests that the predominant use of Jayu in President Yoon’s speeches aligns more with themes of economic liberalism and international security rather than the advocacy of public fundamental rights.

President Yoon Suk Yeol’s frequent invocation of Jayu warrants a closer examination of its motivations, particularly in the context of significant opposition in the current National Assembly and less-than-favorable presidential approval ratings (Shelburne, 2023). President Yoon appears to be leveraging Jayu as a strategic linguistic tool aimed at consolidating and broadening his conservative base to fulfill his administrative and ideological agendas. Within the polarized political landscape of Korea, the emphasis on Jayu functions as a means to define and reinforce the administration’s national and policy priorities. This tactic suggests that President Yoon believes effective governance is achievable through the solid support of conservative factions, even in challenging political circumstances. It implies a governance philosophy that relies on the unwavering support of staunch conservatives, using the promotion of Jayu to galvanize this base. This stance aligns with his belief in the importance of ideological steadfastness for national governance. Consequently, Yoon’s choice of language is viewed as a deliberate strategy to bolster partisanship, which, in turn, may contribute to greater societal division rather than fostering unity.

Indeed, Yim (2023b) in a Reuters news article accentuates that within the distinctive geopolitical and historical context of Korea, the designation “communist” is imbued with profound implications, predominantly attributed to the persistent hostilities with North Korea and the residual legal frameworks from the Cold War era. The news article suggests that, within this milieu, President Yoon Suk Yeol’s delineation of his detractors as “communist totalitarian and anti-state forces threatening Jayu” emerges as a significant focal point for observation and analysis. This labeling transcends mere rhetorical articulation and is imbued with substantial political and ideological connotations, serving as a mechanism to consolidate his conservative base amidst a landscape marked by declining approval ratings and escalating political tensions. This labeling is perceived as a strategic maneuver to consolidate his conservative base, especially in the lead-up to a general election in April, 2024. The president’s remarks have sparked renewed public discourse on communism.

Presidents Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye, having matured politically within conservative circles, crafted their influence through leadership roles in pivotal groups. Their prominent positions in key elections further solidified their status as emblematic figures of a conservative party prior to their presidential tenures. Contrastingly, President Yoon Suk Yeol’s rise to the presidency was somewhat unanticipated, as he assumed the candidacy of a conservative party and attained the presidency without the conventional groundwork typically laid within such political factions. This suggests a lack of established political credentials within the conservative party for President Yoon. Consequently, it can be inferred that he is seeking to carve out a distinct identity by emphasizing the term Jayu, thereby asserting his stance and leadership within the conservative party, potentially more emphatically than his predecessors, Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye.

The president’s approach, rather than seeking to bridge differences, seems to be focused on categorizing the opposition as anti-state and communist totalitarian forces. Yoon’s rhetoric, emphasizing threats from communist forces, is seen as a means to maintain support from his party’s conservative base, given the historical context of the Korean War and instances of North Korean infiltrations into the South. However, this suggests that such tactics risk deepening political divides and potentially alienating moderate voters, contributing to public polarization. Furthermore, Yoon’s alignment with the New Right movement, which favors market-oriented and revisionist perspectives, indicates his ideological leanings (Engel, 2023). Yoon’s rhetoric and policies suggest a departure from his campaign promise of uniting the people, potentially leading to a sense of alienation among some who supported him.

Concluding this exploration, a pivotal question emerges: Is the unprecedented and frequent invocation of the term Jayu in President Yoon Suk Yeol’s speeches a matter of coincidence, or does it reflect a deliberate rhetorical strategy? This research posits that Jayu, imbued with symbolic conservative meaning in Korea, is predominantly integrated into the political discourse of conservative presidents and is intentionally leveraged to reflect the administrative objectives and principles of the current Yoon Suk Yeol government. To corroborate these contentions, this study analyzed speech texts from the tenure of the first president, Rhee Syngman, to the current president, Yoon Suk Yeol, and evaluated the political and policy initiatives of the present government.

This investigation has yielded empirical evidence, indicating a significant association between a president’s conservative orientation and the frequency of mentions of Jayu in their speeches. The analysis has shown that President Yoon had invoked Jayu far more frequently than his predecessors, even those who had been associated with conservative ideologies. Moreover, his speeches have exhibited the most distinct contrast and ratio between Jayu and Minju. Notably, during the inauguration ceremony—a crucial time for setting out a governmental vision and policy direction and fostering a spirit of national unity—President Yoon’s mention of Jayu has been without equal. When assessing the most emphasized terms in each president’s discourse, it becomes evident that President Yoon Suk Yeol’s emphasis on Jayu—a term that is highly political and ideological in the current social context—stands in stark contrast to his predecessors. Previous presidents prioritized “the public,” which resonates with the ethos of the Korean constitution, before emphasizing other significant terms of their time. After the analysis, the discussion section delved into the political and policy shifts after the election, depicting Jayu as emblematic of anti-communism during the Cold War and as an advocate for small government.

The utilization of Jayu by President Yoon Suk Yeol is strategically significant within the polarized political milieu of Korea. His recurrent emphasis on Jayu articulates and underscores the national and policy directives of his administration. This approach suggests that Yoon envisions effective governance as reliant on the solid backing of conservative factions, even under challenging political circumstances. Through the deliberate emphasis on Jayu, he seeks to unify and invigorate his conservative base, embodying a governance philosophy that is rooted in ideological dedication and the active engagement of conservative support. President Yoon’s strategy underscores his belief in the importance of ideological fidelity for national governance. Consequently, his preferential use of Jayu is interpreted as a strategic move to fortify partisanship, which might undermine national unity, leading to increased societal fragmentation by prioritizing party loyalty over collective societal harmony.

Moreover, the escalation of debates around Jayu, particularly post-2004 with the advent of the New Right movement and subsequent to the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye, places President Yoon’s usage of Jayu in a specific context. His frequent invocation of the term represents a deliberate attempt to distinguish his political and policy orientation from that of the preceding administration led by Moon Jae-in of the Democratic Party. This tactic not only signifies a clear ideological shift from his predecessor but also indicates a distinct factional allegiance within the conservative domain, particularly in contrast to former conservative presidents Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye, whose tenures postdated the New Right movement but did not significantly highlight Jayu. President Yoon’s emphatic recourse to Jayu is indicative of his effort to carve out a distinct identity within the conservative party, a party in which he is perceived to have less established political standing. By emphasizing Jayu, he appears to be asserting his leadership and ideological stance more forcefully than Lee Myung-bak and Park Geun-hye, aiming to solidify his position and influence within the party.

In conclusion, this study synthesizes a theoretical framework, empirical validations, and analyses of political and policy strategies to interpret President Yoon’s rhetoric, with its pronounced emphasis on Jayu, as illuminating state governance and administrative principles, notably those pertaining to anti-communism and advocacy for small government. Given the intensified political polarization within both elite politics and the general populace in Korea, it can be inferred that the incumbent conservative government is endeavoring to consolidate and galvanize conservative support amidst challenging political landscapes. Consequently, President Yoon’s rhetoric is perceived not as a language of integration that embraces the entire citizenry, but rather as a divisive tool steeped in partisanship.

Presidential addresses are inherently imbued with political and partisan undertones. Nonetheless, there are notable examples where presidents have pursued policies aiming to transcend partisan lines, emphasizing the need for public consensus. President Roh Tae-woo, for instance, signified a break from prior authoritarian practices by advocating for both Jayu (freedom) and Minju (democracy), thereby initiating a democratic transition (Lee, 2007). President Kim Dae-jung, facing the aftermath of the Asian financial crisis, sought to align public understanding with the adoption of neoliberal policies, a move that seemed at odds with his party’s ideological leanings (Yang, 2001). President Roh Moo-hyun worked to secure public backing for significant decisions such as the Korea-U.S. Free Trade Agreement and the deployment of troops to Iraq, aiming to align national policy with broader strategic interests (Park, 2011). In a similar vein, President Park Geun-hye, during her address at the Technical University of Dresden in Germany, advocated for peaceful reunification, highlighting the need for improved relations with North Korea (Park and Kim, 2014). These instances illustrate the efforts of Korean leaders to navigate complex political landscapes, often seeking to bridge partisan divides in pursuit of national consensus and policy objectives.

One point of caution in interpreting the findings of this study arises from the unique trajectory of Yoon’s ascent to the presidency. Unlike his predecessors, who secured the presidency after years of extensive political and policy groundwork, Yoon’s assumption of office came unexpectedly, marked by a lack of substantial prior engagement in political or policy-making endeavors. Consequently, his political and policy choices are often unpredictable and occasionally challenging to decipher in manners not observed with past presidents. Therefore, a continuous and meticulous examination of the president’s political rhetoric and policy inclinations remains crucial.

Given the global phenomenon of political polarization (Carothers and O’Donohue, 2019), subsequent studies should explore the societal impacts of a president’s political language aimed at consolidating power by unifying specific political factions and garnering their support in a polarized political environment, focusing on the divisive rather than integrative nature of their political language.