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Social Media Platforms’ Policies for Combatting Disinformation

The varied timing and nature of policies enacted creates a fragmented information ecosystem.

Notable Disinformation Campaigns

Global disinformation campaigns related to Russian and Ukraine span numerous languages and continents.

The Role of Bots and Deepfakes in Spreading Disinformation

Bot networks are a primary driver of pro-Russian disinformation campaigns, especially on Twitter.

Social Media Platforms Struggle to Remove False Content

The amount of false content removed about the war represents only a small fraction of the total.

Russians are Using VPNs to Access Restricted Websites

Russia banned over 2,384 websites since the start of the war, propelling a rapid increase in VPN downloads.

Social Media Platforms Supporting Russia’s Information Ecosphere

With most U.S.-based social media platforms now restricted, these domestic platforms are facilitating online communication within Russia.

Russia and Ukraine Used Social Media Heavily Pre-War

Before Russia’s most recent internet crackdown, U.S.-based social media platforms were widely used for communication and accessing information.

Pacific Island Countries Climate Risk, 2019

Projected average annual economic loss from various climate change scenarios from 2020 to 2050.

Development Assistance Donors, 2019

Official development assistance to Pacific Island countries in USD.

Space Debris Event Causes

For each fragmentation event, thousands of pieces of dangerous debris could be added to Earth’s orbit. Over the last 20 years, 12 accidental fragmentations have occurred annually, and that number is anticipated to increase.

Types of Space Weapons

The proliferation of counterspace capabilities has renewed discussions related to kinetic and non-kinetic space weapons used to target space- and terrestrial-based assets. Space Situational Awareness (SSA) is key to allow actors to detect, track, identify, and predict space objects’ behavior.

Overview of Key Actors in the New Space Race

State and non-state actors are looking to ensure that they have continued and reliable access to their space assets and data in what they see as an increasingly competitive and possibly hostile space environment.

Countries’ Space Program Expenditures

Countries spent over $92 billion on their space programs in 2021. Due to innovations from the private sector, new space actors and established spacefaring countries are increasingly investing in long-term space initiatives.

Debris from Anti-satellite (ASAT) Weapons Tests

Depending on the altitude, orbital debris can continue circling Earth for a thousand years or more. To date, there have been 16 destructive ASAT tests, generating over 6,300 pieces of debris. Given the risks that debris poses to future space missions, there have been calls to stop ASAT weapons testing that creates debris.

Anti-satellite (ASAT) Weapons Tests by Country

Four countries have demonstrated ASAT capabilities; however, assessments indicate that there are several countries seeking to develop space weapons for their own national security.

Satellites’ Primary Uses

With more firms launching space projects, most satellites are being used primarily for commercial purposes. SpaceX alone owns 37 percent of the satellites orbiting Earth.

Space Companies’ Regional Distribution

The “New Space Revolution” is encouraging numerous actors, including private companies, to launch their own space missions. Today, there are over 10,000 space technology companies worldwide.

Total Number of Objects Launched into Space

Space exploration is expanding—from a select few spacefaring nations to a diverse set of public- and private-sector actors that are pursuing ambitions of varying scale.

Russia and Ukraine are Key Exporters of Staple Foods

Transport and trade disruptions threaten global export markets.

Unusually High Prices of Staple Foods and Agricultural Inputs Threaten Food Security

Corn, wheat, oilseed, and fertilizer prices have skyrocketed since the Russian invasion of Ukraine

The Spectrums of Environmentally-Linked Conflict

Two spectrums—intensity and scale—inform how conflicts can be mitigated.

Primary Industries & Natural Resources Tied to Conflicts Globally

Land, water, and energy projects constitute nearly ¾ of environmentally-linked conflicts globally.

Environmental Impacts of Industrial Activity on Communities

Failure to manage adverse impacts can lead to backlash and local unrest.

Efforts to Manage Unrest by Level of State Fragility

Forced migration and displacement, corruption, and repression are common responses to unrest in the most fragile countries.

Environmentally-Linked Conflict Risks by Region

Regional and country-level characteristics can shape environmentally-linked conflict.

Carbon Pricing Risks Across Different Sectors

Major companies may face up to $283 billion in carbon-pricing costs by 2025 if countries significantly ramp up carbon-pricing efforts.

Global Carbon Pricing Initiatives

Carbon pricing is an economy-wide lever that could mitigate climate change risks to the world's financial systems and faciliate deep decarbonization.

Global GDP Loss Under Different Warming Scenarios

Climate change presents significant new business and financial risks to the private sector ranging from physical climate impacts such as extreme weather events to climate-focused policies and regulations that can impact commerce.

Weather-Related Disasters by Cause

As temperatures continue to rise, climate-related natural disasters are becoming more frequent.

Climate Risks Under Different Emissions Scenarios

The strength, speed, and clarity surrounding a transition to net-zero will determine the extent of warming as well as the level of exposure to physical and transition risks.

Climate-Related Litigation Outside the U.S.

A rising tide of litigation displays the private sector’s exposure to liability risk.

U.S. Share of Cash and Digital Payments

Demand is growing for convenient and electronic forms of payment.

Breaking Down the Diem Stablecoin Architecture

The Diem Association adjusted its stablecoin model to issue fiat-backed stablecoins in additional to a global stablecoin whose value was to be pegged to a basket of its fiat-backed coins. (Diem announced its intent to shut down in early 2022 due to regulatory scrutiny).

Wholesale CBDC Model Breakdown

Wholesale CBDC models use distributed ledger technology (DLT) to coordinate transfer and settlement of CBDCs between commercial banks and the central bank.

Retail CBDC Models Breakdown

Retail CBDCs act as direct claims against the central bank. Three primary models for issuing retail CBDCs, with differing levels of intermediation.

CBDC Global Interoperability Models

Building globally interoperable CBDCs will solve pertinent existing issues in the transfer of international payments, but multiple models are currently being tested and significant development needs to be completed before a consensus emerges.

Global Status of Key Retail and Wholesale CBDC Projects

Today, domestic banks already have access to electronic central bank money, but transfers done using a wholesale CBDC would replace the current credit/debit system process with a digital token.

Breaking Down the Competition for the Future of Money

The advancement of digital technologies and their integration into the financial sector have created a range of new monetary instruments.

Financial Applications for DLT and Blockchain Technologies

Across the financial services industry, companies are actively integrating distributed ledger technology (DLT) to improve core functions while cutting down on paperwork, fraud, and intermediaries.

Bitcoin Hash Rate Share by Country

The following graphic shows the approximate geographic distribution of global Bitcoin hash rate, or the speed of mining in country from September 2019-April 2021.

The Different Blockchain Technologies Features Used in Cryptocurrencies

While the fundamental concepts of blockchain technology largely remains the same, depending on a coin, there may be differences in its underlying technology, algorithms, and functions.

How Blockchain Technology Functions

Underpinning most cryptocurrencies is blockchain technology, which employs cryptographic methods to maintain security of the digital asset.

Average Monthly Cryptocurrency Prices

The instability and unpredictability in cryptocurrency prices are key barriers to cryptocurrency being widely used. Stablecoins attempt to resolve this problem by having a digital currency pegged to price-stable assets, such as fiat currencies.

Key Differences Between Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs), Cryptocurrencies, and Stablecoins

Broadly speaking, cryptocurrency is a type of digital asset that is encrypted and decentralized. The following chart outlines the many differences among various digital currencies.

Global Cryptocurrency Adoption

As of January 2021, there were an estimated 300 million cryptocurrency users worldwide, with over 18,000 businesses accepting cryptocurrency payments. Bitcoin dominates the cryptocurrency market, currently making up 41.5 percent of the market capitalization, or $904.72 billion as of September 15, 2021.

Share of Illicit Funds in Cryptocurrency

In 2020, fraud vastly exceeded hacks and thefts, making up 73 percent of cryptocurrency-related crimes. The following graphic shows the share of illicit funds going to the top receiving services by crime.

Cryptocurrency Hacking

According to CipherTrace, the average value taken by cryptocurrency criminal actors in 2019 was 160 percent higher than in 2020, suggesting that the crypto space's cyber defenses are improving. Overall, the 2018 through 2020, cryptocurrency hacking totaled an estimated $2.97 billion.

Bitcoin Electricity Consumption

Bitcoin electricity consumption for mining varies depending on demand, but peaked to an all-time high in May 2021. In addition to mining, moving money—whether through cash, credit cards, or cryptocurrency—consumes energy and generates some environmental cost.

Cryptocurrency Exchanges by Volume Share

There are currently 305 spot exchanges with a total 24-hour trading volume of $309.35 billion. The top 15 exchanges had a total trading volume of $48.46 billion as of September 14, 2021 (or 15.66 percent of all trading volume), suggesting that most cryptocurrency activities take place outside of major exchanges and that competition among exchanges is growing as there is more interest in cryptocurrency trading.

Growth in Hosted Cryptocurrency Wallets

The global cryptocurrency asset management market size, which includes wallets, is projected to grow from $0.4 billion in 2020 to $1.1 billion by 2025 at a compound annual growth rate of 23.8 percent. North America is anticipated to account for the highest market share, with Canada and the United States as the major contributors to the market’s growth.

Global Bitcoin ATMs Distribution

Currently, there are 27,299 cryptocurrency ATMs across 74 countries, with most offering Bitcoin, Bitcoin Cash, Ether, Dash, and Litecoin.

U.S. Businesses Offering Cryptocurrency Payments

By industry, the number of businesses in the United States that either have a cryptocurrency ATM or offer cryptocurrency as an in-store payment method.

Timeline of Digital Renminbi Development

Development of the DCEP began in 2014 and has progressed to large-scale trials and partnerships.

Breakdown of China’s Digital Currency Electronic Payment (DCEP)

The DCEP will be tasked with handling 300,000 transactions per second and, if successful, would be come the largest repository of financial data in the world.

SWIFT Alternatives

In response to U.S. sanctions, China, Russia, and the European Union (EU) have all developed domestic alternatives to the SWIFT system.

Global Foreign Reserves Composition

Since 2000, the share of global reserves held in U.S. dollars has steadily declined, from over 70 percent in the early 2000s to 59 percent in Q4 2020.

U.S. Sanctions Imposed Under the Trump Administration

Under the Trump Administration, the U.S. used sanctions as a geopolitical tool more frequently, and new additions to the Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC)'s sanctioned entities list spiked to an all time high in 2018.

International Financial Messaging and Settlement

The U.S. uses this economic power as leverage in geopolitical negotiations and to levy economic sanctions against countries, particularly via the SWIFT, CHIPS, and Fed wire systems.

CO2 Capture by Large-Scale Facilities Globally

Carbon capture, utilization, or storage (CCUS) is an essential tool for the decarbonization of industries, including steel and cement, as well as shipping and aviation.

Recent and Active Unconventional Geothermal Demonstration Projects

Unconventional geothermal approaches offer an opprotunity for fossil fuel companies to leverage their unique drilling expertise and R&D resources in service of the energy transition, potentially creating new political alignments in support of climate action.

Selected Advanced Nuclear Demonstration Projects

Nuclear reactors are one of the largest and longest-tenured climate change solutions. There is growing interest in advanced designs and the deployment of nuclear power generation for firm sources of zero-emissions power.

Global Hydrogen Cost Projections

2050 forecast for "green" versus "blue" hydrogen costs in real 2020 U.S. dollars per kilogram.

Global Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity

China's purposeful approach to battery industry development has yielded a substantial head start in dominating the production of this critical technology.

Lithium-Ion Battery Overall Cost Declines

By 2020, lithium-ion battery prices had fallen by nearly 90 percent from their 2010 average, with analysts projecting that battery electric vehicles (EVs) could reach up-front cost parity with gasoline vehicles in 2023.

Semiconductor Trade Among China, Taiwan, and the U.S.

The following graphic shows the percentage change in semiconductor trade flows (imports and exports) between China, Taiwan, and the U.S. from 2014 to 2019, illustrating the countries' interdependence.

The Global Path of a Semiconductor

This map illustrates the complexity and interdependence of the semiconductor industry ecosystem, and the need to secure each segment.

The Semiconductor Manufacturing Process

The semiconductor manufacturing process is completed in six primary steps with various levels of specialization and functional delineation across the supply chain.

NATO Countries Arctic War Games and Military Exercises

Since 2018, NATO countries have responded to increased Russian military posturing by collaborating on extensive military exercises throughout the Arctic.

NATO Countries Arctic Defense Capabilities and Tactics

Norway and the U.S. are investing in Arctic defense, but NATO countries still lag far behind Russia in their overall military capacities in the Arctic.

NATO Countries Military Bases in the Arctic

Norway has extensive Arctic military infrastructure, but other NATO countries do not have similar capacities.

Russian War Games and Military Exercises in the Arctic

Since 2018, Russia has conducted extensive military exercises throughout the Arctic.

Russian Military Districts in the Arctic

Russian territory is divided into five military districts—four regular districts and one special district for the Northern Fleet military command—used for Russia’s major strategic exercises.

Russian Militarization of the Arctic

Russia has built extensive military installations and capacity within its Arctic territory, centralized under the command of the Northern Fleet.

Voting Machine Technology Changes by County

In addition to infrastructure improvements, broader measures including stricter security protocols are needed to protect election integrity.

Voting Machine Market Distribution by Registered Voters

Voting machine manufacturers are critical players in safeguarding election integrity in the U.S.

Aggregated Voting Machine Distribution by Vendor

Voting machine manufacturers are critical players in safeguarding election integrity in the U.S.

Share of Women Employed in Foreign-Policy-Related Agencies

Women’s employment in foreign-policy agencies has decreased steadily since 2008. This problem afflicts foreign-policy agencies across all fields, particularly in defense, the military, economics, and national security.

Potential Shipping Routes in the Arctic

Access to Arctic shipping routes will potentially re-route future trade from the Suez Canal.

Chinese Investment in the Arctic

A large influx of Chinese foreign direct investment (FDI) accounted for a significant portion of Iceland and Greenland's total economic output from 2012 to 2017.

National Economic Interests and Geopolitical Positions in the Arctic

Expanding interests from other non-Arctic states, as well as geopolitical developments outside of the region, are reshaping Arctic relations, with the potential to further disrupt commercial cooperation there.

Arctic Territorial Boundaries & Disputed Areas

Arctic governance is not designed to effectively mitigate great power competition, including its natural resources and territorial boundaries.

Oil and Gas Basins in the Arctic

The rapid decline of Arctic sea ice is drawing commercial and national interests in the Arctic from those looking to exploit its natural resources and new shipping routes. The major discovered and accessible oil and gas basins in the Arctic are mapped in the following graphic.

Arctic Ice Concentration Change

Arctic sea ice levels have been receding at an average rate of 12.9 percent per year since 1979.

Increase in Internet Activity and Cyberattacks During COVID-19

The rapid digitization of society and data collection during the pandemic increased potential targets' exposure to cyberattacks. To date, there are still no comprehensive, binding rules for state and non-state behavior in cyberspace.

Industry Leaders in Global AI Surveillance Technology Sales

The U.S. and China are home to three leading AI surveillance companies; China-based Huawei leads in AI surveillance technology sales.

Global Sales of AI Surveillance Technology

AI data collection and monitoring technology is currently used in 75 countries.

Global Monitoring and Surveillance Technology Sales

Data collection and monitoring technology largely originated from the U.S., the EU, and Israel and has been sold to governments across North Africa and the Middle East.

Types of Surveillance Technology

The private surveillance industry is responsible for manufacturing and selling a range of data collection and monitoring technologies that are in use around us every day.

Global Government Data Collection Laws

Governments data collection is regulated by different laws than those of private companies. Seven major components found in government data collection laws are catalogued for 38 of the world's largest economies.

Mapping Global Data Privacy Regulations

113 countries have laws that specifically address data privacy elements, as of July 2021. The following graphic maps out various data privacy laws in places and the data privacy issues they address.

Largest GDPR Fines by Company

As of June 30, 2021, the average cost of a fine related to GDPR infractions was $486,134.

GDPR Fines to Date

As of September 2021, the EU has levied 714 fines related to GDPR infractions.

Breakdown of Global Data Localization Laws

Data localization laws are becoming increasingly common around the world, despite U.S. objections. Globally, 74 countries have a form of conditional restrictions on the transfer of data, and 18 countries have more stringent local, or local copy, or data localization laws covering different types of personal data, as of September 2021.

Impact of Data Localization Laws on Different Sectors

Data localization will have a broad impact on different tech sectors in the future.

Search Engine Market Share

2019 sales in USD billions and market share percentage.

Social Media Platform Market Share

2019 sales in USD billions (estimated) and market share percentage.

Cloud Service Providers Market Share

2020 sales in USD billions (estimated) and market share percentage.

Market Dominance of Major Digital Economy Companies

The largest cloud service, social media, and search engine companies dominate the global competition.

Personal Data Collected by Major Tech Companies

The largest U.S. and Chinese tech companies collect and store extensive personal data.

The Size of the Digital Economy

The modern digital economy constantly generates massive amounts of personal data.

6 Ways Water is Becoming a Weapon of War

With water resources likely to be increasingly wielded as instruments of war, effective management is crucial to security.

Instability in MENA, the World’s Most Water-Stressed Region

The Arab region contains 13 of the world's 17 most water-stressed countries. Climate change in the Arab region threatens to reduce food and water productivity a further 20% by 2030.

Average Annual Cost of Cybercrime by Industry

Information loss and business disruption occurring from cyberattacks have constituted over 75 percent of total business losses from cybercrime as of 2018.

15 Largest Data Breaches

As an increasing number of industries begin relying on 5G technology, the implications of cyberattacks become significantly greater, including the risk of data breaches or personal data being exposed through leaked account information.

Major Cyberattacks by Region

Cyberattacks already account for billions of dollars in losses globally. 5G will make securing networks against those attacks even more difficult. The U.S. accounted for 86 percent of the global total, however the majority of breaches likely go unreported.

Huawei Vunerabilities Compared to Key Competitors

Huawei's 5G core network routing equipment was found to have significantly more software vulnerabilities than that of competitors.

Critical Vulnerabilities in 5G Network Design

5G core networks will revolutionize how data moves through networks, but they also present the most pressing security challenges in 5G development.

5G Ecosystem

The full 5G ecosystem encompasses hundreds of firms responsible for building radio access (RAN) and core networks and developing the software and applications that will drive the 5G digital economy.

Average Annual Semiconductor Investment

China's ability to establish a competitive domestic semiconductor industry would carry considerable implications for U.S. tech companies, particularly the 5G industry.

Key Vendors in the 5G Technology Supply Chain

In addition to the major telecom equipment providers (Huawei, Nokia, Ericsson, Samsung, and ZTE), a number of key U.S. and Japanese vendors provide technology that is critical for the development of 5G networks.

5G standard-essential patents (SEPs)

China, Europe, and the U.S. are locked in fierce competition over 5G standards, including which patented technology to adopt.

Technical Contributions to 5G Standards

China is leveraging its position in the 5G standards-setting process to push Chinese technology forward, lending another layer of defense against countries' attemps to ban Huawei.

Evolving Regional Dynamics Regarding 5G

U.S.-China competition over 5G will shape the international landscape and disrupt different regions' abilities to take full advantage of 5G technology.

The Role of Spectrum in Developing 5G Technology

Clearing spectrum in the U.S. is a complicated process due to the existing specrum allocations and the conflicts between commercial and government interests.

Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Technical Contributions by Region

Huawei leads all companies in 5G technical contributions, but Nokia and Ericsson both maintain strong positions.

Research & Development (R&D) Spending by Key 5G Companies

Since 2010, Huawei's R&D spending increased 488 percent ($12.25 billion), while Ericsson and Nokia's R&D spending both decreased.

Revenue of Key 5G Companies

Since 2010, Huawei has seen a 274 percent ($76.8 billion) rise in annual revenue, while Ericsson and Nokia's annual revenues have both decreased.

Profiles of Major Companies Developing 5G Technology

Huawei is dominating market share in the telecom equipment space.

Huawei's Global Expansion

Despite being pushed out of key EU markets in 2020, Huawei maintains a strong global presence across Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

How 5G Networks Function

5G networks are complex ecosystems that will span the globe.

The Her Power Index

Achieving gender equality across the foreign-policy apparatus requires actions by U.S. agencies and a solid commitment from their leadership. The index scores 15 foreign-policy entities across four dimensions.

Women as a Share of Supervisors vs. Share of Overall Employment, 2018

Women supervisors are underrepresented across U.S. foreign-policy agencies, with their share consistently lower than their share of overall employment.

Women's Representation in U.S. Foreign-Policy Leadership, 2018

Women encounter serious barriers to advancement as they reach higher professional classification levels—a pattern consistent across all U.S. foreign-policy agencies.

Chinese Resource Strategy

China is securing critical minerals and metals for which it is net import reliant.

A Vast Sum of Parts: China's Control of Raw Materials

Component materials for key techologies and Chinese control/influence over those materials.